GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD

The grammar-translation method is not new. It has had different names, but it has been used by language teachers for many years. At one time it was called the Classical Method since it was first used in the teaching of the classical languages, Latin and Greek (Chastain 1988). This method was used for the purpose of helping students read and appreciate foreign language literature. Below is an expanded description of some of these techniques.
Experience
The class reading a passage in their text book, entitled 'The Boy's Ambition' from Mark Twain's Life on the Mississippi. Each students is called on to read a few lines from the passage. After they have finished reading, they are asked to translate into Spanish the few lines they have just read. The teacher helps them with new vocabulary items. Announcing the next activity, the teacher asks the students to turn the page in their text. There is a list of words there. The next section of the chapter deal with grammar. The students follow in their books as the teacher reads a description of two-word or phrasal verbs. These are listed following the description, and the students are asked to translate them into Spanish.
Techniques that used in this method are :

• Translation of a literary passage
• Reading comprehension questions
• Antonyms/synonims
• Cognates
• Deductive application of rule
• Memorization
• Use words in sentences
• Composition

Conclusion
The Grammar-Translation Method is classical Method that used 'Native Language' when learning with this method, besides that in this method use deductive method, teacher teaches the students from patterns of sentences to give example. Vocabulary and grammar are emphasized. The purpose of Grammar-Translation method is to help students read and appreciate foreign language literature.

How To Teach Reading and Writing

Instructions
Things You'll Need:

* Reading materials
* Butcher paper
* Colored markers
* Flash cards

1.
Step 1

Ask students to dictate stories as you write their words on the dry board. For example, the students might write about a field trip they took or an upcoming school event. Ask them to name the story. Write the title on the board. Then ask for the main idea, and write it under the title. Ask the students to add sentences that tell about the main idea. After students have dictated the story, read it aloud, asking students to read it with you. Read the story together several times. Then ask individual students to volunteer to read it aloud.
2.
Step 2

Provide a variety of materials for students to read. Classroom libraries, basal readers, newspapers, magazines and materials that students bring from home should provide examples of fiction, nonfiction, realistic fiction, biographies and other genres. Give students opportunities to share what they have read.
3.
Step 3

Use some of the many games on the Internet that teach vocabulary and comprehension skills. One game challenges students to make sentences by unscrambling words. This activity can also be done without a computer. Dictate words similar to the following ones to students and have them write them: rained month day this has it every. Then ask the students to unscramble the words to make a sentence. (It has rained every day this month.) Tell them to use capital letters and punctuation where it is needed. This exercise could also be done with sentences on worksheets.
4.
Step 4

Use activities that are meaningful to students. Diaries and journals are great ways to allow students to express themselves, whether they are beginners or advanced English learners. The emphasis should be on fluency. Correct grammar, punctuation and spelling errors once students have gained some confidence. Correct only one or two errors at one time. A page filled with corrections and suggestions can be confusing. A student may be able to remember one or two corrections, but possibly not a page full of them.
5.
Step 5

Incorporate writing activities into all disciplines. Have students work in groups to research and report topics within the disciplines. For a science project, for example, one group might research and report on magnets, another group on life cycles and another group on the water cycle. Each group should choose a recorder to write the group's findings and another person or persons to report to the rest of the class. Everyone in the group should be responsible for doing some of the reading and taking notes on the group's topic.

How to Teach Listening and Speaking

There are many types of listening activities. Those that don't require learners to produce language in response are easier than those that do. Learners can be asked to physically respond to a command (for example, "please open the door"), select an appropriate picture or object, circle the correct letter or word on a worksheet, draw a route on a map, or fill in a chart as they listen. It's more difficult to repeat back what was heard, translate into the native language, take notes, make an outline, or answer comprehension questions. To add more challenge, learners can continue a story text, solve a problem, perform a similar task with a classmate after listening to a model (for example, order a cake from a bakery), or participate in real-time conversation.
Good listening lessons go beyond the listening task itself with related activities before and after the listening. Here is the basic structure:
• Before Listening
Prepare your learners by introducing the topic and finding out what they already know about it. A good way to do this is to have a brainstorming session and some discussion questions related to the topic. Then provide any necessary background information and new vocabulary they will need for the listening activity.
• During Listening
Be specific about what students need to listen for. They can listen for selective details or general content, or for an emotional tone such as happy, surprised, or angry. If they are not marking answers or otherwise responding while listening, tell them ahead of time what will be required afterward.
• After Listening
Finish with an activity to extend the topic and help students remember new vocabulary. This could be a discussion group, craft project, writing task, game, etc.
Speaking lessons often tie in pronunciation and grammar (discussed elsewhere in this guide), which are necessary for effective oral communication. Or a grammar or reading lesson may incorporate a speaking activity. Either way, your students will need some preparation before the speaking task. This includes introducing the topic and providing a model of the speech they are to produce. A model may not apply to discussion-type activities, in which case students will need clear and specific instructions about the task to be accomplished. Then the students will practice with the actual speaking activity.
These activities may include imitating (repeating), answering verbal cues, interactive conversation, or an oral presentation. Most speaking activities inherently practice listening skills as well, such as when one student is given a simple drawing and sits behind another student, facing away. The first must give instructions to the second to reproduce the drawing. The second student asks questions to clarify unclear instructions, and neither can look at each other's page during the activity. Information gaps are also commonly used for speaking practice, as are surveys, discussions, and role-plays. Speaking activities abound; see the Activities and Further Resources sections of this guide for ideas.
Here are some ideas to keep in mind as you plan your speaking activities.
• Content
As much as possible, the content should be practical and usable in real-life situations. Avoid too much new vocabulary or grammar, and focus on speaking with the language the students have.
• Correcting Errors
You need to provide appropriate feedback and correction, but don't interrupt the flow of communication. Take notes while pairs or groups are talking and address problems to the class after the activity without embarrassing the student who made the error. You can write the error on the board and ask who can correct it.
• Quantity vs. Quality
Address both interactive fluency and accuracy, striving foremost for communication. Get to know each learner's personality and encourage the quieter ones to take more risks.
• Conversation Strategies
Encourage strategies like asking for clarification, paraphrasing, gestures, and initiating ('hey,' 'so,' 'by the way').
• Teacher Intervention
If a speaking activity loses steam, you may need to jump into a role-play, ask more discussion questions, clarify your instructions, or stop an activity that is too difficult or boring.

Discussion of Communicative Approach

What are the goals of teachers who use communicative language teaching (CLT)?
answer : The goal is to enable students to communicate in the target language. To do this students need knowledge of the linguistics forms, meanings, and functions. They need to know that many different forms can be used to perform a function and also that a single form can often serve a variety of functions. They must be able to choose from among these the most appropriate form, given the social context and the roles of the instructors. They must also be able to manage the process of negotiating meaning with their interlocutors. Communication is a process; knowledge of the forms of language is insufficient.
What is the role of the teacher? what is the role of the students?
answer : The teacher facilitates communication in the classroom. In this role, one of his major responsibilities is to establish situations likely to promote communication. During the activities he acts as an adviser, answering students questions and monitoring their performance. He might make note of their errors to be worked on at a later time during more accuracy-based activities. At other times he might be a 'communicator' engaging in the communicative activity along with students.
What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?
answer : The most obvious characteristics of CLT is that almost everything that is done is done with a communicative intent. Students use the language a great deal through communicative activities such as games, role plays, and problem-solving tasks.
What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? what is the nature student-student interaction?
answer : The teacher may present some part of the lesson, such as when working with linguistic accuracy. At other times, he is facilitator of the activities, but he does not always himself interact with the students. Sometimes he is a co-communicator, but more often he establishes situations that prompt communication between and among the students.
How are the feelings of the students dealt with?
answer : One of the basic assumptions of CLT is that by learning to communicate students will be more motivated to study a foreign language since they will feel they are learning to do something useful with the language. Also, teachers give students an opportunity to express their individuality by having them share their ideas and opinions on a regular basis. Finally, student security is enhanced by the many opportunities for cooperative interactions with their follow students and the teacher.

Discussion of Total Physical Response

Total physical response has been named ‘the comprehension approach’, because of the importance it gives to listening comprehension; this method is a general approach to foreign language instruction. According to Winitz (1981), language learning should start first with understanding later proceed to production.
Language learning usually emphasizes students’ developing basic communication skills and vocabularies are meaningful exposures to the target language. The students listen to the teacher using the target language communicatively from the beginning of instruction. They do not speak at first. The teacher helps the students’ to understand them by using pictures and occasional words.
A new method from Michael Lewis argued that the lexical approach is less concerned with students’ production and more concern that students receive abundant comprehensible input.
James Asher’s Total Physical Response is the principles of the comprehension approach are put into practice; understanding of any target language is to follow direction uttered by the instruction (without native language translation).
The goal of this method is to make their students enjoy their experience in learning to communicate in a foreign language.

Principles:
1. Meaning in the target language can often be conveyed through actions.
2. Understand of the target language should be developed before speaking.
3. Students can learn rapidly by moving their body.
4. The imperative is a powerful linguistic can direct students behavior.
5. Students can learn through observing actions.
6. Feeling of success and low anxiety facilitate learning.
7. Students should not be made to memorize fixed routines.
8. Correction should be carried out in an unobtrusive manner.
9. Students need to understand more than exact sentences used in training.
10. Language learning is more effective when it is fun.
11. Spoken language should be emphasized over written language.
12. Students will begin to speak when they are ready.
13. Students are expected to a make errors and teacher should be tolerant of them.

The Discussion of Community Language Learning

*What are the goals of teachers who use the Community Language Learning Method?
#answer: teachers who use the Community Language Learning Method want their students to learn how to use the target language communicatively.

*What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
#answer : the teacher's initial role is primarily that of counselor. This does not mean that the teacher is a therapist, or that the teacher does no teaching. Rather, it means that the teacher recognizes how threatening a new learning situations can be for adult learners, so he skillfully understands and supports his students in their struggle to master the target language. Initially the learners are very dependent upon the teacher. It is recognized, however, that as the learners continue to study, they become increasingly independent.

*What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?
#answer : in a beginning class, which is what we observed, students typically have a conversation using their native language. the teacher helps them express what they want to say by giving them the target language translation in chunks. These chunks are recorded,and when they are replayed, it sounds like a fairly fluid conversation. Later, a transcript is made of the conversation, and native language equivalents arewritten beneath the target language words. The transcription of the conversation becomes a 'text' with which students work.

*What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student action?
#answer: the nature of student-teacher interaction in the community language learning method cahnges the lesson and over time. As Rardin and Tranel (1988) have observed, the Community Language Learning Method is neither student-centered, nor teacher-centered, but rather teacher-student-centered, with both being decision-makers in the class.

*How are the feeling of the students dealt with?
#answer: responding to the students feelings is considered very important in Counseling-Learning. One regular activity is inviting students to comment on how they feel. The teacher listens and responds to each comment carefully. By showing students he understands how they feel, the teacher can help them overcome negative feelings that might otherwise block their learning.

*How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?
#answer: language is for communication. Curran writes that 'learning is persons', meaning that both teacher and student work at building trust in one another and the learning process. Curran also believes that language becomes the means for developing creative and critical thinking.

*What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?
#answer:particular grammar points, pronunciation patterns, and vocabulary are worked with, based on the language the students have generated. The most important skills are understanding and speaking the laguage at the beginning, with reinforcement through reading and writing.

*How does the teacher respond to student errors?
#answer: the teacher to repeat correctly what the student has said incorrectly, without calling further attention to the error.

The Suggestopedia

The originator of this method, Georgi Lozanov, believes as does Silent Way's Caleb Gattegno, that language learning can occur at a much faster rate than ordinarily transpires. The reason for our inefficiency, Lozanov asserts, is that we set up psychological barriers to learning: We fear that we will be unable to perform, that we will be limited in our ability to learn, that we will fail. One result is that we do not use the full mental powers that we have. According to Lozanov and others, we may be using only five to ten percent of our mental capacity. In order to make better use of our reserved capacity, the limitations we think we have need to be 'desuggested.' The Suggestopedia, the applicationof the study of suggestion to pedagogy, has been developed to help students eliminate the feeling that they cannot be successful or the negative association they may have toward studying and, thus, to help them overccome the barriers to learning. One of the ways the students mental reserves are stimulated is through integration of the fine arts, an important contribution to the method made by Lozanov's colleague Evelyna Gateva.
If you find The Suggestopedia's principles meaningful, you may want to try some of the following techniques or to alter your classroom environment. Even if they do not all appeal to you, there may be some elements you could usefully adapt to your own teaching style.
• Classroom set-up
The challenge for the teacher is to create a classroom environment which is bright and cheerful. This was accomplished in the classroom we visited where the walls were decorated with scenes from a country where the target language is spoken. These conditions are not always possible. However, the teacher should try to provide as positive an environment as possible.
• Peripheral learning
This technique is based upon the idea that we perceive much more in our environment than that to which we consciously attend. It is claimed that, by putting posters containing grammatical information about the target language on the classroom walls, students will absorb the necessary facts effortlessly. The teacher may or may not call attention to the posters. They are changed from time to time to provide grammatical information that is appropriate to what the students are studying.
• Positive suggestion
It is the teacher’s responsibility to orchestrate the suggestive factors in a learning situation, thereby helping students break down the barriers to learning that they bring with them. Teachers can do this through direct and indirect means. Direct suggestion appeals to the students consciousness : a teacher tells students they are going to be successful. But indirect suggestion, which appeals to the students subconscious, is actually the more powerful of the two. For example, indirect suggestion was accomplished in the class we visited through the choice of a dialog entitled, ‘To want to is to be able to.’
• Choose a new identity
The students choose a target language name and a new occupation. As the course continues, the students have an opportunity to develop a whole biography about their fictional selves. For instance, later on they may be asked to talk or write about their fictional hometown, childhood, and family.
• Role play
Students are asked to pretend temporarily that they are someone else and to perform in the target language as if they were that person. They are often asked to create their own lines relevant to the situation. In the lesson we observed, the students were asked to pretend that they were someone else and to introduce themselves as that person.
• First concert (active concert)
The two concerts are components of the receptive phase of the lesson. After the teacher has introduced the story as related in the dialog and has called students attention to some particular grammatical points that arise in it, she reads the dialog in the target language. The students have copies of the dialog in the target language and their native language and refer to it as the teacher is reading. Music is played. After a few minutes, the teacher begins a slow, dramatic readings, synchronized in intonation with the music. The music is classical; the early Romantic period is suggested. The teacher’s voice rises and falls with the music.
• Second concert (passive concert)
In the second phase, the students are asked to put their scripts aside. They simply listen as the teacher reads the dialog at a normal rate of speed. The teacher is seated and reads with musical accompaniment. The content governs the way the teacher reads the script, not the music, which is pre-Classical or Baroque. At the conclusion of this concert, theclass ends for the day.
• Primary activation
This technique and the one that follows are components of the active phase of the lesson. The students playfully reread the target language dialog out loud, as individuals or in groups. In the lesson we observed , three groups of students read parts of the dialog in a particular manner: the first group, sadly; the next, angrily; the last, cheerfully.
• Creative adaptation
The students engage in various activities designed to help them learn the new material and use it spontaneously. Activities particularly recommended for this phase include singing, dancing, dramatizations, and games. The important thing is that the activities are varied and do not allow the students to focus on the form of the linguistic message, just the communicative intent